RESEARCH - Medieval England - Post 10: Christmas

 

In the previous post, I looked at religion in 15th century England. I started talking about Christmas and realised it needed a post of its own. 

We still talk of the twelve days of Christmas now, but they celebrated fully in medieval England, even in poor houses. Farming was relatively active. It was cold and dark. The shortest day arrived. All this darkness was alleviated somewhat by the Yule log which burned in the hearth for the duration, starting on 24th December. 6th January was twelfth night & Epiphany, when all decorations would be taken down and burned, and maybe twelfth night cake was eaten.

Also on twelfth night, the person who found a dried bean in their piece of cake (or bread) was crowned king of the feast, and lorded it over everyone. He would mimic the actions of the highest person there.

Monday Plough / Plough Monday was also celebrated on Epiphany. A sign for work to begin again, but celebrated with a plough race and some more games. Well, the ground was likely still too hard to actually plough just yet. 

Arguably, festivities began even sooner. 11th November was the feast of St Martin, starting the "forty days of St Martin' which began their equivalent of Advent. 

A Boy Bishop was appointed (usually from the choir) 6th December; the Feast of St Nicholas. He would preside over all offices and ceremonies except Mass until the Feast of the Holy Innocents. It seems Elizabeth I abolished this practice in England.

It was, of course, a deeply religious time. 28th December commemorated Childermass or Holy Innocents Day - when King Herod ordered the murder of all children under the age of two. Nativity plays were performed around this. I'm sorry to say that children were often whipped in their beds that morning, as a reminder of mournfulness - a practice which only really stopped in the 17th century!

1st January was the Feast of Circumcision or the Feast of Fools. Clergy would wear their clothes inside out and lead an ass into church.

People decorated their homes with holly, believed to ward off evil spirits. Mistletoe was also used, to bring in good luck. And ivy was a fitting addition to all this greenery. 

There were pantomimes and games, and as much feasting as they could manage. Touring monks would perform plays. Minstrels would recite verses. Games involving cards and dice would be played. Board games such as chess, tables, backgammon on Nine Men's Morris may be enjoyed.

Alcohol flowed in vast quantities. So much so that additional watchmen would be posted on duty. However, they were paid in ale, so they may have made merry too.

I've listed various drinks before, so won't repeat myself.

Songs and carols were sung with gusto. Songs we still know, such as The Holly And The Ivy and In Dulci Jubilo were quite possibly enjoyed. Carols were different from what we understand them to be, however. Many of our Christmas favourites often date from the Victorian era. 

For a (slightly dodgy) rendition of The Holly and the Ivy played by yours truly on her flute, go to the YouTube video here.

To carol was to join together in a circle to sing and dance. This was originally performed in church but became so raucous that the revellers were sent outside. And thus door-to-door carol singing began! 

Gifts were given, but played a far lesser part. 

Christmas Day was a quarter day, so rents were due - boo! But then 26th December arrived - St Stephen's Day. Poor boxes were placed in church. And lords would give hollow clay pots to those under their jurisdiction. These pots had little slits in the top and contained money. They were nicknamed piggies. And now you know why it's called a piggy bank! 

The lord or lady of the manor may have exchanged gifts of clothes and jewllery to wear for the season on 25th December. They were expected to wear their finest garments at this time of year.

The poor would perhaps craft toys such as spinning tops or dolls for their children.

Food was a focal point. Everyone would find the choicest meat they could. If they could get a pig or a chicken, the meat would be combined with dried fruits and baked into a mince pie.

The cost of oysters, as I mentioned in my food post, went up at Christmas as they were in high demand. 

For the rich, a boar's head may be the centrepiece, or a swan or peacock roasted in its feathers. 

There would be a first course of soup or broth - warming and heartening. 

Salmon, herring or trout and those oysters would be fine offerings for the fish course. 

Entire legs of mutton or beef were spit-roasted. Venison, veal, goose, capon, suckling pig, lark and duck were suitable options too. 

Custards, frumenty, tarts, nuts and fruits would make up the desserts. 

If one had poorer people at the feast, and you would if you wanted to avoid purgatory, then you may well have served them umble pie. Thee umbles being the parts of the deer others didn't wish to eat e.g. brains, ears and feet. 

Have I mentioned the almsgate? A lot of manors would have a place at their border where leftover food could be offered to the poor all year round, but particularly well stocked at Christmas. 

Basically, everyone made as merry as they could! 

And, after all that, on 1st February, Candlemas was celebrated (mentioned in my previous post). Well, I'm sure that after such an extended period of festivity, January could feel a bit woeful. 

Always in love and light,

TL

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My book, Love in the Roses is available for pre-order (click here).

 

To protect her family, she must marry the enemy!

The fictitious tale of a knight’s daughter, living life as it very well may have been in 1484.

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RESEARCH - Medieval England - Post 6: Farming & The Agricultural Year

Farming

 

Oops! Research post 6 and I'm only just getting onto farming? Tsk! 

Farming was not a way of life in the Middle Ages – it WAS life. If crops failed, the community would starve. Such was the way in the Time Before Supermarkets 😦

And, there were times of famine in England, sadly. For a full list of human-killing events, do visit this site here.

That being said, in 1484/5, my Isabel was safe from famine, at least. Yay! So, let us look more generally at farming in Medieval England. 

Introducing the Workers

It depends which part of this era you look at. Towards the end of the Middle Ages, feudalism was dying out and farmers would pay rents (instead of making food offerings to appease their lord of the manor). Basically, The Plague of 1348 had wiped out 40-60% of the entire population (COVID-19’s not so scary now, eh?)! And it made a comeback in 1361, but wiped out a mere 20% that time!! It was really difficult to get enough workers, so the landed gentry decided they were better off effectively outsourcing.

But even under the new system, a manor would have permanent agricultural workers. Amounts in brackets are in shillings, and were the recommended wages according to the 1388 Ordinance of Labourers which was reaffirmed by Parliament in 1349 (ooh, workers rights!).

{  Grangers

{  Carters (10s)

{  Plough team members (7s)

{  Reapers

{  Mowers

{  Smiths

{  Shepherds (10s)

{  Herdsmen - ox or cow (6s 8d) (swineherds and female labourers 6s)

{  A maidservant (8s)

{  Harvest reeve – a supervisor (15s)

{  Bailiff – the big boss (20s)

 

The harvest reeve and bailiff would also likely be in receipt of a bonus in the form of clothing allowance or bundles of faggots (tied bundles of sticks for kindling fires).

Any extra work would be contracted to casual labourers.

The rent collector (or harvest reeve) would collect the rents from tenant farmers. Most of these tenants would be expected to contribute some boon work during harvest, but then get paid in cash or commodity rents the rest of the time.

Part-time tenant farmers may have been expected to shoe traction animals, dig ditches, herd animals, cart hay, produce/maintain farm buildings/implements and assist with arable cultivation.

 

Types of Farming

Wool was a big deal. It was a growth economy in the 1500s. So, of course, there was sheep farming.

One of the huge benefits was the lower maintenance cost of around £2 per annum - 10s each shepherd’s wage, and under £1 for essentials such as fencing, grease and tar. To buy a sheep was 1s.

The job of a shepherd was lowly but thanks to its affinity with Christian ideology, it carried a slightly higher status than other farm labourer roles. He was expected to be a kindly type (a bit simple) as sheep would shun him if he wasn’t a gentle chap, apparently – this was generally accepted advice at the time, don’t blame me.

 

Cattle were also kept, more for milking (mmm…cheese and butter!). Cows were expensive though – 10s each as opposed to 1s for a sheep, or even just 1 penny for a lamb! And they ate more. But then one could tan hides and sell the leather for horses’ tack or to repair carts etc. And make cheese from their milk. Oddly, there's not much evidence of milk drinking.

But one of the biggest impacts on the English countryside was arable farming (crops). Although the cost of this started climbing thanks to the raising of wages and the scarcity of labour. Costs could include things such as: ploughing, sowing, reaping, carting, capital investment in a stock of plough beasts (& maintenance of), repairs to ploughs, purchase of seed, wages and the cost of the harvest feast (which could be lavish indeed – more than the cost of the harvest itself!).

The ensuing hay would help feed the livestock over winter.

 

The Farming Year

                                       

Michaelmas (29 September)

The cycle begins. Crops sown. Winter crops (wheat and rye) are ploughed. The aim was to complete this by All Saints Day (01 November) when the harvest reeve and some workers may well be expected to dine at The House.

As the bread grains were sown, the previous summer’s crop had to be threshed and winnowed.

Autumn/winter months  

After the harvest, fields would be ploughed (the final ploughing of the year). 

Plough beasts were fattened and the ploughs & carts would be repaired, often by travelling carpenters.

General tools and fences would be made/repaired through to February.

Withies (willow rods) would be harvested once the leaves had dropped, ready to be weaved into baskets.

Older fruit trees would be pruned.

In November, if a farm had pigs, acorns would be collected to feed them.

And in November/December, animals would be butchered. Some of the ‘flesh’ (meat) would be smoked or salted to ensure it lasted all winter. Peasants would kill their own animals.

 

Candlemas (02 Feb)

    Spring ploughing would begin, dependant on hard frosts (it could be delayed up until late April!).

Once this was completed, a celebration may well take place with an attending minstrel and some special food such as garfish, sole or plaice.

Spring

In March, stable dung and soil from dovecotes would be spread over the fields. Horse, oxen, pig and even human droppings could be used as fertiliser.

Ploughmen had their own fields to attend to as well as the fallow fields.

March – April was lambing season for those farms with sheep.

Spring sowing of barley, oats, legumes and vetches would be carried out in April. Peasants would also plant vegetables in their own gardens late winter/early spring. And there was harrowing to be done.

In April/May, fruit trees (apples, pears and sometimes berry bushes) may be planted in the orchards and/or the peasants gardens.

In sun or showers, people would dig ditches and begin ploughing the farrow fields in May.

Cows would start giving milk fully as they ate the fresh spring pasture.

Human scarecrows would leap around to scare off birds until the seeds sprouted. Children as young as three could run about the fields, banging drums or sticks, ringing bells, clapping and/or shouting.

Then the corn fields would get weeded – men, women and children would get involved in this.

 

June - Hay Harvest

By June, ploughs would be in need of repairs.

The second ploughing of the farrow field would be done.

Sheep shearing would be carried out, followed by a feast.

And hay would be made (whilst the sun shines, as the saying goes). This could be done in June/July, and was vital as it would feed the animals over winter.

Crops would be weeded in July.

This was actually the leanest time of year; supplies would be low and the new harvests had not yet come in.

 

Lammas (01 August)

The wheat harvest will hopefully be ready. This was the husbandry and spiritual feast. The first harvest would be consecrated as a Eucharist offering (in Loaf Mass/Lammas).

Tenants, neighbours, local farmers and boon workers (those obliged to as part of their rental contract) would all help out.

As men cut the crops, women would tie them into sheaves for the carter to load and transport to the barn for storage.

The household would bake bread and brew ale every 2-3 days instead to the usual 5-6 to ensure all were well fed.

Harvest could take around 28 days to complete – a celebration was definitely in order after all that! Especially as this was the basis for their survival. Grain may have accounted for around 80% of a person’s calorie intake – think bread, ale and pottage.

Threshing – separating the grain from the stalks, was done by men hitting the stalks with a flail.

Winnowing (separating the grain from the chaff; the outer casing) would ensue. Often, they would sieve the wheat heads, letting the chaff blow away in the breeze (or encouraged with the wafting of a sheet).

Threshing and winnowing could take up to two months. During which time, the miller would start grinding the grain into flour. Water mills were popular as they weren’t weather dependant, so long as there was a stream nearby of course. But windmills were also in use.

Also, in late summer/August, fruit would be picked from hedgerows and trees.

Peas, beans and vetches would be harvested. Much of this would be dried for winter use.

September

In early September, young fruit trees would be pruned.

This was about a month before Michelmas, when it would all begin again.

 

 

 

Those poor labourers. Just as they were at their most hungry, they had to work their hardest! 

Yep, life was hard. 

Always in love and light,

TL

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My book, Love in the Roses is available for pre-order (click here).

To protect her family, she must marry the enemy!

The fictitious tale of a knight’s daughter, living life as it very well may have been in 1484.

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RESEARCH - Medieval England - Post 3: Daily Life and Towns/Villages/Cities

 Peasants

It's all well and good to discuss the nobles of 15th century England (see previous post). But what was life like for the majority of people? 

Think of medieval peasants and dirt and squalor spring to mind. This wasn't necessarily the case. Yes, there was a lot of mud in the countryside and horse manure was everywhere, but cleanliness was important. There were such things as public baths. Nonetheless, I was very tempted to nab an image from Monty Python And The Holy Grail; the one where the peasant moans of being repressed!? 

Anyway, life expectancy was 33-35 years of age. However, it is important to bear in mind that the incredibly high infant mortality rate affected this. The general rule of thumb was that if your child survived until 20 years old, they'd probably reach around the age of 50. Only 5% reached the age of 60+, and these were often bishops! 

There is a very informative article (written by someone else), about daily life in Chaucer's era - click here.

Towns, Villages and Cities

Of course, not everyone was a farm labourer. Although, around 90% of the population lived in the countryside. There were towns, cities and villages. 

Definitions:

{ City - a large town. City status conferred by royal charter.

{ Town - built around a market. Would have a borough charter, taxation as a town or summons of parliamentary representatives. 

{ Village - no market

NB The existence of a cathedral does not necessarily indicate a city.

Also, these definitions are woolly. There were not actually clear distinctions at the time, and are the source of much debate amongst historians.

Cathedral cities, such as Bath, Canterbury or York existed. In 1170, Thomas Becket was killed. Thereafter, Canterbury Cathedral (where he had been archbishop) became a popular site of pilgrimage. 

Towns were smaller than we expect today, and were usually owned by a lord. Villages would usually be no more than 8 miles away from a town. They could be seen as dangerous places; crime rates were high. However, market towns were popular, as trading would take place here. This is where you would find the most merchants and shops. 

Goods, such as food, clothing and household items were traded. 

Both towns and cities often had walls, or at least fences, surrounding them, to ensure some degree of protection. Entrance was via guarded gates. They were busy, crowded, noisy, dirty and smelly. There were no bin men - refuse piled up quickly! Sewage was also another issue. 

Mop fairs took place in market towns, coinciding with quarter days (when rents would be collected). Serfs looking for new posts would gather, waring a badge/emblem of their trade, offering themselves for hire. 

In 1377, tax records indicated the population levels. However, as there have always been tax dodgers, this was not entirely accurate. Approximate populations: 

{  London – 23,314

{  York – 7,248

{  Bristol – 6,345

{  Coventry – 4,817

{  Norwich – 3,952

Today, London homes around 9 million people! But even with its smaller population in medieval times, London was one of the largest, most important economic centres of Europe. 

In London, there were 12 trades who dominated political and social life - clothworkers, drapers, fishmongers, goldsmiths, grocers, haberdashers, ironmongers, mercers, salters, skinners, tailors and vintners.

Incidentally, there was a St Paul's Cathedral on Ludgate Hill. But the current one, designed by Sir Christopher Wren, was built 1675-1710.

The total population in England in 1500 was around 3 million. 

Travel between these places was hard and perilous; bandits often roamed trade routes. Also, don't forget the languages I mentioned in my first post. 

This guy is fun to watch, and here, he looks into medieval villages and towns (of Italy, but still gives a good idea): click here.

Fun fact: signs were hung outside shops with painted symbols of the shop's wares due to low levels of literacy. 

Look, life was hard for all. Whichever social class you were in, there was toil and stress aplenty. I'll be looking into farming later, but it played a vital role in survival. Disease and medicine will also be investigated further; it may not be as you expect. 

Always in love and light,

TL

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My book, Love in the Roses is available for pre-order (click here).

To protect her family, she must marry the enemy!

The fictitious tale of a knight’s daughter, living life as it very well may have been in 1484.

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